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Professor Nancy Cartwright's Outputs (229)

Disagreement about Evidence-Based Policy (2024)
Book Chapter
Cowen, N., & Cartwright, N. (in press). Disagreement about Evidence-Based Policy. In M. Baghramian, J. A. Carter, & R. Cosker-Rowland (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Disagreement. Routledge

Objectivity and Intellectual Humility in Scientific Research: They’re Harder Than You Think (2023)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Ray, F. (2023). Objectivity and Intellectual Humility in Scientific Research: They’re Harder Than You Think. European Review, 31(4), 367-381. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1062798723000091

We begin from the assumption that where scientific research will predictably be used to affect things of moral significance in the world, you have a special duty, a duty of care, to ‘get it right’. This, we argue, requires a special kind of objectivi... Read More about Objectivity and Intellectual Humility in Scientific Research: They’re Harder Than You Think.

How Should Evidence Inform Education Policy? (2022)
Book Chapter
Joyce, K. E., & Cartwright, N. (2022). How Should Evidence Inform Education Policy?. In R. Curren (Ed.), Handbook of Philosophy of Education. Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003172246-9

This chapter explores how evidence from various sources can support education policy decisions. Although policy arguments include some normative premises, we focus on the evidence needed to support their descriptive premises, homing in on predictions... Read More about How Should Evidence Inform Education Policy?.

How to Learn about Causes in the Single Case (2022)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2022). How to Learn about Causes in the Single Case. In J. Widner, M. Woolcock, & D. Ortega Nieto (Eds.), . Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108688253.003

RCTs have gained considerable prominence as a ‘gold standard’ for establishing whether a given policy intervention has a causal effect, but what do these experiments actually tell us and how useful is this information for policy-makers? Cartwright dr... Read More about How to Learn about Causes in the Single Case.

Rigour versus the need for evidential diversity (2021)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2021). Rigour versus the need for evidential diversity. Synthese, 199(5-6), 13095-13119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-021-03368-1

This paper defends the need for evidential diversity and the mix of methods that that can in train require. The focus is on causal claims, especially ‘singular’ claims about the effects of causes in a specific setting—either what will happen or what... Read More about Rigour versus the need for evidential diversity.

Why Trust Science? Reliability, Particularity and the Tangle of Science (2020)
Presentation / Conference Contribution
Cartwright, N. (2020, December). Why Trust Science? Reliability, Particularity and the Tangle of Science. Presented at Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Online via Zoom

In evaluating science, philosophers tends to focus on general laws and on their truth. I urge a shift in focus to the reliability of the panoply of outputs science produces and in tandem, from the general to the particular. Here I give five arguments... Read More about Why Trust Science? Reliability, Particularity and the Tangle of Science.

Mechanisms, laws and explanation (2020)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., Pemberton, J., & Wieten, S. (2020). Mechanisms, laws and explanation. European Journal for Philosophy of Science, 10(3), Article 25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-020-00284-y

Mechanisms are now taken widely in philosophy of science to provide one of modern science’s basic explanatory devices. This has raised lively debate concerning the relationship between mechanisms, laws and explanation. This paper focuses on cases whe... Read More about Mechanisms, laws and explanation.

Middle-range theory: Without it what could anyone do? (2020)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2020). Middle-range theory: Without it what could anyone do?. THEORIA. An International Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science, 35(3), 269-323. https://doi.org/10.1387/theoria.21479

Philosophers of science have had little to say about 'middle-range theory' although much of what is done in science and of what drives its successes falls under that label. These lectures aim to spark an interest in the topic and to lay groundwork fo... Read More about Middle-range theory: Without it what could anyone do?.

Why Big Theories are Here to Stay (2019)
Presentation / Conference Contribution
Cartwright, N. (2019, November). Why Big Theories are Here to Stay. Presented at «The Theoretical University» in the Data Age. Have the great theories become obsolete?, Bielefield University

Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice: Predicting What Will Work Locally (2019)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Joyce, K. (2020). Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice: Predicting What Will Work Locally. American Educational Research Journal, 57(3), 1045-1082. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219866687

This essay addresses the gap between what works in research and what works in practice. Currently, research in evidence-based education policy and practice focuses on RCTs. These can support causal ascriptions (‘It worked’) but provide little basis f... Read More about Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice: Predicting What Will Work Locally.

What is meant by ‘rigour’ in evidence-based educational policy and what’s so good about it. (2019)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2019). What is meant by ‘rigour’ in evidence-based educational policy and what’s so good about it. Educational Research and Evaluation, 25(1-2), 63-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2019.1617990

Across the evidence-based policy and practice (EBPP) community, including education, randomised controlled trials (RCTS) rank as the most “rigorous” evidence for causal conclusions. This paper argues that that is misleading. Only narrow conclusions a... Read More about What is meant by ‘rigour’ in evidence-based educational policy and what’s so good about it..

Nature the Artful Modeler: Lectures on Laws, Science, How Nature Arranges the World, and How We Can Arrange It Better. The 2017 Carus Lectures (2019)
Book
Cartwright, N. (2019). Nature the Artful Modeler: Lectures on Laws, Science, How Nature Arranges the World, and How We Can Arrange It Better. The 2017 Carus Lectures. Open Court

How fixed are the happenings in Nature and how are they fixed? These lectures address what our scientific successes at predicting and manipulating the world around us suggest in answer. One--very orthodox--account teaches that the sciences offer gene... Read More about Nature the Artful Modeler: Lectures on Laws, Science, How Nature Arranges the World, and How We Can Arrange It Better. The 2017 Carus Lectures.

Will Your Policy Work? Experiments versus Models (2018)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2018). Will Your Policy Work? Experiments versus Models. In I. Peschard, & B. van Frassen (Eds.), The experimental side of modeling. University of Minnesota Press

Cross-disciplinary evidence principles for social-environmental sustainability (2018)
Journal Article
Game, E., Tallis, H., Olander, L., Alexander, S., Busch, J., Cartwright, N., …Sutherland, W. (2018). Cross-disciplinary evidence principles for social-environmental sustainability. Nature Sustainability, 1(9), 452-454. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0141-x

Evidence-based approaches to sustainability challenges must draw on knowledge from the environment, development and health communities. To be practicable, this requires an approach to evidence that is broader and less hierarchical than the standards... Read More about Cross-disciplinary evidence principles for social-environmental sustainability.

Are laws of nature consistent with contingency? (2018)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Merlussi, P. (2018). Are laws of nature consistent with contingency?. In W. Ott, & L. Patto (Eds.), Laws of Nature, an anthology (221-244). Oxford University Press

What evidence should guidelines take note of? (2018)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2018). What evidence should guidelines take note of?. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 24(5), 1139-1144. https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.12959

The Guidelines Challenge Conference on which this special issue builds asked as the first of its “further relevant questions”: “How do we incorporate more types of causally relevant information in guidelines?” This paper first supports the presupposi... Read More about What evidence should guidelines take note of?.

Meeting Our Standards for Educational Justice: Doing Our Best with the Evidence (2018)
Journal Article
Joyce, K., & Cartwright, N. (2018). Meeting Our Standards for Educational Justice: Doing Our Best with the Evidence. Theory and Research in Education, 16(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878518756565

The United States considers educating all students to a threshold of adequate outcomes to be a central goal of educational justice. The No Child Left Behind Act introduced evidence-based policy and accountability protocols to ensure that all students... Read More about Meeting Our Standards for Educational Justice: Doing Our Best with the Evidence.

Modeling mitigation and adaptation policies to predict their effectiveness: The limits of randomized controlled trials (2018)
Book Chapter
Marcellesi, A., & Cartwright, N. (2018). Modeling mitigation and adaptation policies to predict their effectiveness: The limits of randomized controlled trials. In E. Lloyd, & E. Winsberg (Eds.), Climate modelling : philosophical and conceptual issues (449-480). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65058-6_15

Policies to combat climate change should be supported by evidence regarding their effectiveness. But what kind of evidence is that? And what tools should one use to gather such evidence? Many argue that randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gol... Read More about Modeling mitigation and adaptation policies to predict their effectiveness: The limits of randomized controlled trials.

Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials (2017)
Journal Article
Deaton, A., & Cartwright, N. (2018). Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials. Social Science & Medicine, 210, 2-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.12.005

Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) are increasingly popular in the social sciences, not only in medicine. We argue that the lay public, and sometimes researchers, put too much trust in RCTs over other methods of investigation. Contrary to frequent c... Read More about Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials.

Randomized Controlled Trials: How Can We Know “What Works”? (2017)
Journal Article
Cowen, N., Virk, B., Mascarenhan-Keyes, S., & Cartwright, N. (2017). Randomized Controlled Trials: How Can We Know “What Works”?. Critical Review, 29(3), 265-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2017.1395223

“Evidence-based” methods, which most prominently include randomized controlled trials, have gained increasing purchase as the “gold standard” for assessing the effect of public policies. But the enthusiasm for evidence-based research overlooks questi... Read More about Randomized Controlled Trials: How Can We Know “What Works”?.

A Theory of Measurement (2017)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., Bradburn, N., & Fuller, J. (2017). A Theory of Measurement. In L. McClimans (Ed.), Measurement in medicine : philosophical essays on assessment and evaluation. Rowman & Littlefield

Causal Powers: Why Humeans Can't Even Be Instrumentalists (2017)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2017). Causal Powers: Why Humeans Can't Even Be Instrumentalists. In J. D. Jacobs (Ed.), Causal powers (9-23). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796572.003.0002

Hume urged that there is no difference between the obtaining of a power and its exercise; others, that there is no difference between its exercise and the result that occurs. This chapter reinforces the reasons, based in the success of the analytic m... Read More about Causal Powers: Why Humeans Can't Even Be Instrumentalists.

What’s so special about empirical adequacy? (2017)
Journal Article
Bhakthavatsalam, S., & Cartwright, N. (2017). What’s so special about empirical adequacy?. European Journal for Philosophy of Science, 7(3), 445-465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-017-0171-7

Empirical adequacy matters directly - as it does for antirealists - if we aim to get all or most of the observable facts right, or indirectly - as it does for realists - as a symptom that the claims we make about the theoretical facts are right. But... Read More about What’s so special about empirical adequacy?.

Predicting What Will Happen When You Intervene (2017)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., Hardie, J., & Stringer, R. (2017). Predicting What Will Happen When You Intervene. Clinical Social Work Journal, 45(3), 270-279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-016-0615-0

This paper offers some rules of thumb that practicing social workers can use for case studies that aim to construct, albeit not fully and never entirely reliably, models designed to help predict what will happen if they intervene in specific ways to... Read More about Predicting What Will Happen When You Intervene.

Big Systems Versus Stocky Tangles: It Can Matter to the Details (2017)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2018). Big Systems Versus Stocky Tangles: It Can Matter to the Details. Erkenntnis, 83(1), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-016-9869-8

Wolfgang Spohn’s Frege prize lecture, like the work on which it is based, is a tour de force of rich, elegant, coherent argument about how the projected world that we experience is constructed. But we do not live in this projected world nor reason ab... Read More about Big Systems Versus Stocky Tangles: It Can Matter to the Details.

Single Case Causes: What is Evidence and Why (2016)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2016). Single Case Causes: What is Evidence and Why. In H. Chao, & J. Reiss (Eds.), Philosophy of science in practice : Nancy Cartwright and the nature of scientific reasoning (11-24). Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45532-7_2

How do we establish singular causal claims? It seems we do this all the time, from courtrooms to cloud chambers. Nevertheless, there is a strong lobby in the evidence-based medicine and policy movements that argues that we cannot make reliable causal... Read More about Single Case Causes: What is Evidence and Why.

The limitations of randomised controlled trials (2016)
Digital Artefact
Deaton, A., & Cartwright, N. (2016). The limitations of randomised controlled trials. [VOX, CEPR Policy Portal]

In recent years, the use of randomised controlled trials has spread from labour market and welfare programme evaluation to other areas of economics, and to other social sciences, perhaps most prominently in development and health economics. This colu... Read More about The limitations of randomised controlled trials.

Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials (2016)
Preprint / Working Paper
Deaton, A., & Cartwright, N. (2016). Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials

RCTs would be more useful if there were more realistic expectations of them and if their pitfalls were better recognized. For example, and contrary to many claims in the applied literature, randomization does not equalize everything but the treatment... Read More about Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials.

A Theory of Measurement (2016)
Preprint / Working Paper
Cartwright, N., Bradburn, N. M., & Fuller, J. (2016). A Theory of Measurement

This paper discusses basic issues about the nature of measurement for concepts in the social sciences and medicine, introducing a three-stage theory of measurement. In science and policy investigations we study quantities and qualities (or quality/qu... Read More about A Theory of Measurement.

Economics as Science (2016)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Davis, J. (2016). Economics as Science. In R. Skidelsky, & N. Craig (Eds.), Who runs the economy? The role of power in economics (43-55). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58017-7_4

The plan for this talk is to discuss, first, the question ‘What is science?’ I’m going to explain that the second question, ‘Does economics fit the bill?’, is hard to answer since we have no good answer to the first question. Then I shall turn to the... Read More about Economics as Science.

Where is the Rigor When You Need It? (2016)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2016). Where is the Rigor When You Need It?. Foundations and trends in accounting, 10(2-4), 106-124. https://doi.org/10.1561/1400000045

When it comes to causal conclusions, rigor matters. To this end we impose high standards for how studies from which we draw causal conclusions are conducted. For instance, we are widely urged to prefer randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or instrumen... Read More about Where is the Rigor When You Need It?.

Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix (2016)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Marcellesi, A. (2016). Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix. In M. Couch, & J. Pfeifer (Eds.), The philosophy of Philip Kitcher (229-252). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof%3Aoso/9780199381357.003.0010

Nancy Cartwright and Alexandre Marcellesi argue that policy decisions ought to be based on (1) whether the policy will be effective and (2) whether it is morally, politically, socially, and culturally acceptable. Greater weight, though, is often give... Read More about Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix.

The Dethronement of Laws in Science (2016)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2016). The Dethronement of Laws in Science. In N. Cartwright, & K. Ward (Eds.), Rethinking order : after the laws of nature (25-52). Bloomsbury Academic

Loose Talk Kills: What’s Worrying about Unity of Method (2016)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2016). Loose Talk Kills: What’s Worrying about Unity of Method. Philosophy of Science, 83(5), 768-778. https://doi.org/10.1086/687862

There is danger in stressing commonalities among methods because the differences matter in fixing the meaning of our claims. Different methods can, and often do, test the same claim. But it takes a strong network of theory and empirical results to en... Read More about Loose Talk Kills: What’s Worrying about Unity of Method.

Contingency and the order of nature (2016)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2016). Contingency and the order of nature. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 58, 56-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.12.008

Many profess faith in the universal rule of deterministic law. I urge remaining agnostic, putting into nature only what we need to account for what we know to be the case: order where, and to the extent that, we see it. Powers and mechanisms can do t... Read More about Contingency and the order of nature.

Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials (2016)
Preprint / Working Paper
Cartwright, N., & Deaton, A. (2016). Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials

What allows research evidence to contribute to successful social policy and improve practice in public services? The establishment of the What Works Network, a group of evidence ‘clearing houses’, that summarise academic research evidence for practit... Read More about Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials.

Scientific Models versus Social Reality (2015)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2015). Scientific Models versus Social Reality. Building Research and Information, 44(3-4), 334-337. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2015.1083811

Policy predictions fail for the very many different kinds of case-by-case local factors described in the Building Research & Information (2015) special issue (vol. 43/4) entitled ‘Closing the Policy Gaps: From Formulation to Outcomes'. Work in philos... Read More about Scientific Models versus Social Reality.

Making the Most of the Evidence: Evidence-based policy in the classroom (2015)
Preprint / Working Paper
Cartwright, N., Cowen, N., Virk, B., & Mascarenhas-Keyes, S. (2015). Making the Most of the Evidence: Evidence-based policy in the classroom

What allows research evidence to contribute to successful social policy and improve practice in public services? The establishment of the What Works Network, a group of evidence ‘clearing houses’, that summarise academic research evidence for practit... Read More about Making the Most of the Evidence: Evidence-based policy in the classroom.

How Could Laws Make Things Happen? (2015)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2015). How Could Laws Make Things Happen?. In N. Spurway (Ed.), Laws of Nature, Laws of God? Proceedings of the Science and Religion Forum Conference 2014 (115-135). Cambridge Scholars Publishing

EBP: Where Rigor Matters (2015)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Marcellesi, A. (2015). EBP: Where Rigor Matters. In C. Crangle, A. García de la Sienra, & H. E. Longino (Eds.), Foundations and methods from mathematics to neuroscience : essays inspired by Patrick Suppes. CSLI Publications

Ceteris paribus laws need machines to generate them (2014)
Journal Article
Pemberton, J., & Cartwright, N. (2014). Ceteris paribus laws need machines to generate them. Erkenntnis, 79(10), 1745-1758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-014-9639-4

Most of the regularities that get represented as ‘laws’ in our sciences arise from, and are to be found regularly associated with, the successful operation of a nomological machine. Reference to the nomological machine must be included in the cp-clau... Read More about Ceteris paribus laws need machines to generate them.

Philosophy of Social Science: A New Introduction (2014)
Book
Cartwright, N., & Montuschi, E. (Eds.). (2014). Philosophy of Social Science: A New Introduction. Oxford University Press

This is a much-needed new introduction to a field that has been transformed in recent years by exciting new subjects, ideas, and methods. It is designed both for students with central interests in philosophy and those planning to concentrate on the s... Read More about Philosophy of Social Science: A New Introduction.

Measurement (2014)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2014). Measurement. In N. Cartwright, & E. Montuschi (Eds.), Philosophy of Social Science. A New Introduction. Oxford University Press

Causality (2014)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2014). Causality. In N. Cartwright, & E. Montuschi (Eds.), Philosophy of Social Science. A New Introduction. Oxford University Press

Making the Most of the Evidence in Education: A Guide for Working Out What Works .... Here and Now (2014)
Preprint / Working Paper
Cowen, N., & Cartwright, N. (2014). Making the Most of the Evidence in Education: A Guide for Working Out What Works .... Here and Now

This is a guide to using research evidence when deliberating about educational policies. It is intended for teachers, for school heads, for boards of governors – for anyone who has to settle on policies, programmes or approaches, whether for a singe... Read More about Making the Most of the Evidence in Education: A Guide for Working Out What Works .... Here and Now.

Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix – and not always for the best (2014)
Preprint / Working Paper
Cartwright, N. (2014). Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix – and not always for the best

In 2004 in the London Borough of Haringey, 17-month-old Peter Connelly was found dead in his crib. The child had suffered fractured ribs and a broken back after months of abuse at home. His mother, her partner and a lodger were jailed for his death.... Read More about Deliberating Policy: Where morals and methods mix – and not always for the best.

A Question of Nonsense (2014)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2014). A Question of Nonsense. ywn, 63, 102-116

Evidence, Argument and Prediction (2013)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2013). Evidence, Argument and Prediction. In V. Karakostas, & D. Dieks (Eds.), EPSA11 Perspectives and Foundational Problems in Philosophy of Science, The European Philosophy of Science Association Proceedings 2. Springer Verlag

Evidence: For Policy and Wheresoever Rigor is a Must (2013)
Book
Cartwright, N. D. (2013). Evidence: For Policy and Wheresoever Rigor is a Must. London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE)

This collection has been assembled under the auspices of the Templeton project, God's Order, Man's Order and the Order of Nature, which I helped direct. Much of my work on that project was concerned with Man's Order. Specifically, with how better to... Read More about Evidence: For Policy and Wheresoever Rigor is a Must.

Presidential Address: Will This Policy Work for You? Predicting Effectiveness Better: How Philosophy Helps (2012)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2012). Presidential Address: Will This Policy Work for You? Predicting Effectiveness Better: How Philosophy Helps. Philosophy of Science, 79(5), 973-989. https://doi.org/10.1086/668041

There is a takeover movement fast gaining influence in development economics, a movement that demands that predictions about development outcomes be based on randomized controlled trials. The problem it takes up—of using evidence of efficacy from goo... Read More about Presidential Address: Will This Policy Work for You? Predicting Effectiveness Better: How Philosophy Helps.

RCT’s, Evidence and Predicting Policy Effectiveness (2012)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2012). RCT’s, Evidence and Predicting Policy Effectiveness. In H. Kincaid (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Philosophy of the Social Sciences (298-318). Oxford University Press

Queen Physics: How Much of the Globe is Painted Red? (2012)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Martin, E. (2012). Queen Physics: How Much of the Globe is Painted Red?. In F. Watts, & C. Knight (Eds.), God and the scientist : exploring the work of John Polkinghorne (67-76). Ashgate Publishing

Warranting the use of causal claims: a non-trivial case for interdisciplinarity (2012)
Journal Article
Rol, M., & Cartwright, N. (2012). Warranting the use of causal claims: a non-trivial case for interdisciplinarity. THEORIA. An International Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science, 27(2), 189-202. https://doi.org/10.1387/theoria.4075

To what use can causal claims established in good studies be put? We give examples of studies from which inaccurate inferences were made about target policy situations. The usual diagnosis is that the studies in question lack external validity, which... Read More about Warranting the use of causal claims: a non-trivial case for interdisciplinarity.

A Theory of Evidence for Evidence-Based Policy (2011)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Stegenga, J. (2011). A Theory of Evidence for Evidence-Based Policy. In P. Dawid, W. Twining, & M. Vasilaki (Eds.), Evidence, inference and enquiry (291-322). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197264843.003.0011

Evidence-based policy is all the rage now. But no one knows quite how to do it. Policy questions do not generally fall neatly within any one of our scientific or social science disciplines, where the standards and rules of evidence for the questions... Read More about A Theory of Evidence for Evidence-Based Policy.

Predicting what will happen when we act. What counts for warrant? (2011)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2011). Predicting what will happen when we act. What counts for warrant?. Preventive Medicine, 53(4-5), 221-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.08.011

To what extent do the results of randomized controlled trials inform our predictions about the effectiveness of potential policy interventions? This crucial question is often overlooked in discussions about evidence-based policy. The view I defend is... Read More about Predicting what will happen when we act. What counts for warrant?.

Hunting Causes and Using Them: Is There No Bridge from Here to There? (2011)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Efstathiou, S. (2011). Hunting Causes and Using Them: Is There No Bridge from Here to There?. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 25(3), 223-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2011.605245

Causation is in trouble—at least as it is pictured in current theories in philosophy and in economics as well, where causation is also once again in fashion. In both disciplines the accounts of causality on offer are either modelled too closely on on... Read More about Hunting Causes and Using Them: Is There No Bridge from Here to There?.

Evidence, External Validity and Explanatory Relevance (2011)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2011). Evidence, External Validity and Explanatory Relevance. In G. J. Morgan (Ed.), Philosophy of science matters : the philosophy of Peter Achinstein (15-28). Oxford University Press

When does one fact speak for another? That is the problem of evidential relevance. Peter Achinstein’s answer, in brief: Evidential relevance = explanatory relevance.2 My own recent work investigates evidence for effectiveness predictions, which are a... Read More about Evidence, External Validity and Explanatory Relevance.

A philosopher's view of the long road from RCTs to effectiveness. (2011)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2011). A philosopher's view of the long road from RCTs to effectiveness. The Lancet, 377(9775), 1400-1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736%2811%2960563-1

For evidence-based practice and policy, randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are the current gold standard. But exactly why? We know that RCTs do not, without a series of strong assumptions, warrant predictions about what happens in practice. But just... Read More about A philosopher's view of the long road from RCTs to effectiveness..

Predicting 'It Will Work for Us': (Way) Beyond Statistics (2011)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2011). Predicting 'It Will Work for Us': (Way) Beyond Statistics. In P. Illari, F. Russo, & J. Williamson (Eds.), Causality in the sciences. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof%3Aoso/9780199574131.001.0001

A great deal of attention in evidence‐based policy and practice is directed to statistical studies–especially randomized controlled trials–that support causal conclusions, which this chapter dubs ‘It‐works‐somewhere claims’. What's needed for policy... Read More about Predicting 'It Will Work for Us': (Way) Beyond Statistics.

A Theory of Measurement (2011)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Bradburn, N. (2011). A Theory of Measurement. In R. M. Li (Ed.), The importance of common metrics for advancing social science theory and research: a workshop summary (53-56). National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13034

Foreword (2010)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2010). Foreword. In J. Woods (Ed.), Fictions and Models: New Essays. Philosophia Verlag

Natural Laws and the Closure of Physics. (2010)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2010). Natural Laws and the Closure of Physics. In R. Chiao, A. Leggett, M. Cohen, & C. Harper (Eds.), Visions of Discovery. New Light on Physics, Cosmology and Consciousness (612-622). Cambridge University Press

Relativism in the Philosophy of Science. (2010)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2010). Relativism in the Philosophy of Science. In M. Krausz (Ed.), Relativism: A Contemporary Anthology (86-99). Columbia University Press

Does Roush show that evidence should be probable? (2010)
Journal Article
Fennell, D., & Cartwright, N. (2010). Does Roush show that evidence should be probable?. Synthese, 175(3), 289-310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-009-9510-3

This paper critically analyzes Sherrilyn Roush’s (Tracking truth: knowledge, evidence and science, 2005) definition of evidence and especially her powerful defence that in the ideal, a claim should be probable to be evidence for anything. We suggest... Read More about Does Roush show that evidence should be probable?.

The limitations of randomized controlled trials in predicting effectiveness (2010)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Munro, E. (2010). The limitations of randomized controlled trials in predicting effectiveness. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 16(2), 260-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01382.x

What kinds of evidence reliably support predictions of effectiveness for health and social care interventions? There is increasing reliance, not only for health care policy and practice but also for more general social and economic policy deliberatio... Read More about The limitations of randomized controlled trials in predicting effectiveness.

Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics (2010)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2010). Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics. Analysis, 70(2), 307-310. https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/anp157

Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics (HC&UT) is about notions of causality appropriate to the sciences, mostly generic causal claims (causal laws) and especially notions that connect causality with probability.1 Most... Read More about Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics.

Evidence-Based Policy: Where Is Our Theory of Evidence? (2010)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., Goldfinch, A., & Howick, J. (2010). Evidence-Based Policy: Where Is Our Theory of Evidence?. Journal of Children's Services, 4(4), 6-14. https://doi.org/10.5042/jcs.2010.0017

This article critically analyses the concept of evidence in evidence‐based policy, arguing that there is a key problem: there is no existing practicable theory of evidence, one which is philosophically‐grounded and yet applicable for evidence‐based p... Read More about Evidence-Based Policy: Where Is Our Theory of Evidence?.

What are randomised controlled trials good for? (2010)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2010). What are randomised controlled trials good for?. Philosophical Studies, 147(1), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-009-9450-2

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are widely taken as the gold standard for establishing causal conclusions. Ideally conducted they ensure that the treatment ‘causes’ the outcome—in the experiment. But where else? This is the venerable question of... Read More about What are randomised controlled trials good for?.

Measuring the Impact of Philosophy (2010)
Digital Artefact
Bovens, L., & Cartwright, N. (2010). Measuring the Impact of Philosophy. [II]

The question of concern for this inquiry is “what evidence is there on the feasibility or effectiveness of estimating the economic impact of research” in this field? There is a current tendency to think that evidence consists only in empirical studie... Read More about Measuring the Impact of Philosophy.

How To Do Things with Causes (2009)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. D. (2009). How To Do Things with Causes. Proceedings and addresses of the American Philosophical Association, 83(2), 5-22

What is this thing called 'efficacy'? (2009)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. D. (2009). What is this thing called 'efficacy'?. In C. Mantzavinos (Ed.), Philosophy of the social sciences : philosophical theory and scientific practice (185-206). Cambridge University Press

This paper is about efficacy, effectiveness, the need for theory to join the two, and the tragedies of exporting the Cochrane medical-inspired ideology to social policy. Loosely, efficacy is what is established about causes in RCTs – randomized contr... Read More about What is this thing called 'efficacy'?.

If No Capacities then No Credible Worlds. But Can Models Reveal Capacities? (2009)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2009). If No Capacities then No Credible Worlds. But Can Models Reveal Capacities?. Erkenntnis, 70(1), 45-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-008-9136-8

This paper argues that even when simple analogue models picture parallel worlds, they generally still serve as isolating tools. But there are serious obstacles that often stop them isolating in just the right way. These are obstacles that face any mo... Read More about If No Capacities then No Credible Worlds. But Can Models Reveal Capacities?.

Causality, Invariance and Policy (2009)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2009). Causality, Invariance and Policy. In H. Kincaid, & D. Ross (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of philosophy of economics (410-423). Oxford University Press

This chapter has five aims: 1. To explain the puzzling methodology of an important econometric study of health and status. 2. To note the widespread use of invariance in both economic and philosophical studies of causality to guarantee that causal kn... Read More about Causality, Invariance and Policy.

Theories: Tools versus Models (2008)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Suarez, M. (2008). Theories: Tools versus Models. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 39(1), 61-81

Measurement (2008)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Chang, H. (2008). Measurement. In S. Psillos, & M. Curd (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Science. Routledge

Replies (2008)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2008). Replies. In S. Hartmann, C. Hoefer, & L. Bovens (Eds.), Nancy Cartwright's Philosophy of Science. Routledge

In Praise of the Representation Theorem (2008)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2008). In Praise of the Representation Theorem. In M. Frauchiger, & W. Essler (Eds.), Representation, evidence, and justification : themes from Suppes (83-90). Ontos Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110323566.83

This paper will take up three of Patrick Suppes’s favourite topics: representation, invariance and causality. I begin not immediately with Suppes’s own work but with that of his Stanford colleague, Michael Friedman. Friedman argues that various high... Read More about In Praise of the Representation Theorem.

Why be Hanged for Even a Lamb? (2008)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2008). Why be Hanged for Even a Lamb?. In B. Monton (Ed.), Images of empiricism (32-45). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof%3Aoso/9780199218844.003.0003

This chapter examines van Fraassen's motivation for restricting his scientific theoretical commitments to claims about observables. Many critics have argued that the observable/unobservable distinction van Fraassen draws on is either an illegitimate... Read More about Why be Hanged for Even a Lamb?.

Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics. (2007)
Book
Cartwright, N. (2007). Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511618758

Hunting Causes and Using Them argues that causation is not one thing, as commonly assumed, but many. There is a huge variety of causal relations, each with different characterizing features, different methods for discovery and different uses to which... Read More about Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics..

Counterfactuals in Economics: A Commentary (2007)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2007). Counterfactuals in Economics: A Commentary. In J. Keim Campbell, M. O'Rourke, & H. Silverman (Eds.), Causation and explanation (191-216). Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press

Counterfactuals are a hot topic in economics today, at least among economists concerned with methodology. I shall argue that on the whole this is a mistake. Usually the counterfactuals on offer are proposed as causal surrogates. But at best they prov... Read More about Counterfactuals in Economics: A Commentary.

From Causation to Explanation and Back (2006)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2006). From Causation to Explanation and Back. In B. Leiter (Ed.), The Future of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford Clarendon Press

Well-Ordered Science: Evidence for Use (2006)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2006). Well-Ordered Science: Evidence for Use. Philosophy of Science, 73(5), 981-990. https://doi.org/10.1086/518803

This article agrees with Philip Kitcher that we should aim for a well‐ordered science, one that answers the right questions in the right ways. Crucial to this is to address questions of use: Which scientific account is right for which system in which... Read More about Well-Ordered Science: Evidence for Use.

No God; No Laws (2005)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2005). No God; No Laws. In E. Sindoni, & S. Moriggi (Eds.), Dio, la Natura e la Legge. God and the Laws of Nature. Milan: Angelicum-Mondo X

My Understand to Philosophy [sic] (2005)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2005). My Understand to Philosophy [sic]. In K. Ouyang (Ed.), Dang dai Ying Mei zhu ming zhe xue jia xue shu zi shu [The Academic Self-Statements of Contemporary British and American Distinguished Philosophers]. Beijing: Ren min chu ban she. Publication in Chinese

Laws (2005)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., Alexandrova, A., Efstathiou, S., Hamilton, A., & Muntean, I. (2005). Laws. In M. Smith, & F. Jackson (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy. Oxford University Press

Uncertainty in Econometrics: Evaluating Policy Counterfactuals (2004)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Reiss, J. (2004). Uncertainty in Econometrics: Evaluating Policy Counterfactuals. In P. Mooslechner, H. Schuberth, & M. Schurz (Eds.), Economic Policy Under Uncertainty: The Role of Truth and Accountability in Policy Advice. Edward Elgar Publishing

Introduction (2002)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (2002). Introduction

What Makes a Capacity a Disposition?, (2002)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2002). What Makes a Capacity a Disposition?,. In M. Kistler, & B. Gnassounou (Eds.), Dispositions and Causal Powers (195-206). London School of Economics

Many, if not most of our highly prized “laws” of physics cannot be adequately rendered as statements of regular association among the values of “occurrent” quantities, I have argued.1 This is true even if we do not balk at the concept of natural nece... Read More about What Makes a Capacity a Disposition?,.

Ceteris Paribus Laws and Socio-Economic Machines (2001)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2001). Ceteris Paribus Laws and Socio-Economic Machines. In U. Maki (Ed.), The Economic World View: Studies in the Ontology of Economics. Cambridge University Press

Modularity: It Can – and Generally Does – Fail (2001)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2001). Modularity: It Can – and Generally Does – Fail. In D. Costantini, M. Galavotti, & P. Suppes (Eds.), Stochastic Dependence and Causality. California: CSLI

Endpiece (2000)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N., & Suárez, M. (2000). Endpiece. Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, 15, 123-128

Against the Completability of Science (2000)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2000). Against the Completability of Science. In J. Wolff, & M. Stone (Eds.), The Proper Ambition of Science. Routledge

Quantum Mechanics without the Observables (2000)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2000). Quantum Mechanics without the Observables. In E. Agazzi, & M. Pauri (Eds.), The Reality of the Unobservable: Observability, Unobservability, and their Impact on the Issue of Scientific Realism. Dortrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers

An Empiricist Defence of Singular Causes (2000)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (2000). An Empiricist Defence of Singular Causes. In R. Teichmann (Ed.), Logic, Cause and Action: Essays in Honour of Elizabeth Anscombe. Cambridge University Press

Capacities (1999)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1999). Capacities. In J. Davis, D. Hands, & U. Mäki (Eds.), The Handbook of Economic Methodology. Edward Elgar Publishing

Comments and Replies (1999)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1999). Comments and Replies. In M. Paul (Ed.), Proceedings of the Münster Colloquium. Münster: LIT Verlag

Causation (1998)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Cat, J. (1998). Causation. In P. Kegan, & E. Craig (Eds.), The Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Routledge

Otto Neurath (1882-1945) (1998)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1998). Otto Neurath (1882-1945). In P. Kegan, & E. Craig (Eds.), The Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Routledge

Causality, Independence and Determinism (1998)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1998). Causality, Independence and Determinism. In A. Gammerman (Ed.), Causal Models and Intelligent Data Analysis. Springer Verlag

Where Do Laws of Nature Come From? (1997)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1997). Where Do Laws of Nature Come From?. In C. Chauvire, & A. Ogien (Eds.), Dialectica (65-78). Paris: EHESS

What is a Causal Structure? (1997)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1997). What is a Causal Structure?. In V. McKim, & S. Turner (Eds.), Causality in Crisis? Statistical Methods and the Search for Causal Knowledge in the Social Sciences. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press

Philosophy in the Earthly Plane (1997)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Uebel, T. (1997). Philosophy in the Earthly Plane. In E. Nemeth, & F. Stadler (Eds.), Encyclopaedia and Utopia: The Life and Work of Otto Neurath. Münster: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Why Physics? (1997)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1997). Why Physics?. In R. Penrose, & M. Longair (Eds.), The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. Cambridge University Press

Neurath Against Method (1996)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Cat, J. (1996). Neurath Against Method. In R. Giere, & A. Richardson (Eds.), Origins of Logical Empiricism, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, XVI. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press

Probabilities and Experiments (1995)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (1995). Probabilities and Experiments. Journal of Econometrics, 65(1), 47-59

Where in the World is the Quantum Measurement Problem? (1995)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1995). Where in the World is the Quantum Measurement Problem?. In L. Kruger, & B. Falkenburg (Eds.), Physik, Philosophie und die Einheit der Wissenschaften: Grundlagen der exakten Naturawissenschaften. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag

Otto Neurath: Politics and the Unity of Science (1995)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., Cat, J., & Chang, H. (1995). Otto Neurath: Politics and the Unity of Science. In P. Galison, & D. Stump (Eds.), The Disunity of Science. Stanford: Stanford University Press

Causal Structures in Econometrics Models (1995)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1995). Causal Structures in Econometrics Models. In D. Little (Ed.), On the Reliability of Economic Models (63-89). Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0643-6_3

There has recently been a renewal of interest among economists, especially econometricians, in deep versus shallow parameters, autonomous versus confluent equations, and fundamental versus phenomenological laws. What is at stake in these concerns is... Read More about Causal Structures in Econometrics Models.

Substantivalism and the Hole Argument (1994)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Hoefer, C. (1994). Substantivalism and the Hole Argument. In J. Earman, A. Janis, G. Massey, & N. Rescher (Eds.), Philosophical Problems of the Internal and External Worlds: Essays Concerning the Philosophy of Adolf Grünbaum. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press

Marks and Probabilities: Two Ways to Find Causal Structure (1993)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1993). Marks and Probabilities: Two Ways to Find Causal Structure. In F. Stadler (Ed.), Scientific Philosophy: Origins and Developments, Yearbook 1/93, Institute Vienna Circle. Münster: Kluwer Academic Publishers

How We Relate Theory to Observation (1993)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1993). How We Relate Theory to Observation. In P. Horwich (Ed.), World Changes: Thomas Kuhn and the Nature of Science. Cambridge. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press

How to Hunt Quantum Causes (1991)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Jones, M. (1991). How to Hunt Quantum Causes. In W. Spohn (Ed.), Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach (205-231). Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3490-3_11

In Bohm’s version of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (E.P.R.) paradox, a source prepares paired spin-1/2 particles in the singlet state. This is a state in which the total spin must be zero. Yet, when a measurement is made along any given direction, each... Read More about How to Hunt Quantum Causes.

Quantum Causes: The Lessons of the Bell Inequalities (1990)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1990). Quantum Causes: The Lessons of the Bell Inequalities. In P. Weingärtner, & G. Schurz (Eds.), Philosophy of the Natural Sciences: Proceedings of the 13th International Wittgenstein Symposium. Vienna: Hölderlin-Pichler-Tempsky

Capacities and abstractions. (1989)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1989). Capacities and abstractions. In P. Kitcher, & W. Salmon (Eds.), Scientific Explanation (349-356). (Minnesota archive ed.). University of Minnesota Press

Ursachen und Mathematische Physik (1988)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1988). Ursachen und Mathematische Physik. In W. Muschik, & E. Scheibe (Eds.), Philosophie, Physik, Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin

Regular Associations and Singular Causes (1988)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1988). Regular Associations and Singular Causes. In B. Skyrms, & W. Harper (Eds.), Causation, Chance and Credence. Münster: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Max Born and the Reality of Quantum Probabilities (1987)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1987). Max Born and the Reality of Quantum Probabilities. In L. Krüger, G. Gigerenzer, & M. Morgan (Eds.), The Probabilistic Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books

Two Kinds of Teleological Explanation (1986)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1986). Two Kinds of Teleological Explanation. In A. Donagan, A. Perovich, & M. Wedin (Eds.), Human Nature and Natural Knowledge. Dortrecht: D. Reidel

Fitting Facts to Equations (1986)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1986). Fitting Facts to Equations. In R. Grandy, & R. Warner (Eds.), Philosophical Grounds of Rationality: Intentions, Categories and Ends. Oxford University Press

What Makes Physics' Objects Abstract? (1984)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N., & Mendell, H. (1984). What Makes Physics' Objects Abstract?. In J. Cushing, C. Delaney, & G. Gutting (Eds.), Science and Reality. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press

Measuring Position Probabilities (1980)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1980). Measuring Position Probabilities. In P. Suppes (Ed.), Studies in the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Philosophy of Science Association

Philosophy of Physics (1979)
Book Chapter
Cartwright, N. (1979). Philosophy of Physics. In P. Asquith, & H. Kyburg (Eds.), Current Research in Philosophy of Science: Proceedings of the PSA Critical Research Problems Conference. Philosophy of Science Association

A Non-Negative Wigner-Type Distribution (1975)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (1975). A Non-Negative Wigner-Type Distribution. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 83(1), 210-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4371%2876%2990145-x

The Wigner function, which is commonly used as a joint distribution for non-commuting observables, is shown to be non-negative in all quantum states when smoothed with a gaussian whose variances are greater than or equal to those of the minimum uncer... Read More about A Non-Negative Wigner-Type Distribution.

Correlations without joint distributions in quantum mechanics. (1974)
Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (1974). Correlations without joint distributions in quantum mechanics. Foundations of Physics, 4(1), 127-136. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00708563

The use of joint distribution functions for noncommuting observables in quantum thermodynamics is investigated in the light of L. Cohen's proof that such distributions are not determined by the quantum state. Cohen's proof is irrelevant to uses of th... Read More about Correlations without joint distributions in quantum mechanics..

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Journal Article
Cartwright, N. (online). Reply